Translating racism in children’s literature

Racism has attracted increasing attention in the media across the globe, leading to debates about the use of the n-word in literary works from the past. The manner in which this subject is addressed and managed is highly dependent on the spoken language and the country in question. Agatha Christie's 1939 novel is a prime example of this phenomenon, as it was retitled And Then There Were None in the United States of America as soon as 1940, while the version in the United Kingdom did not adopt the title until 1985[1]. This temporal discrepancy is indicative of an earlier and more pronounced awareness of the term's racist connotations in the United States than in the United Kingdom. Moreover, the French version remained unaltered until August 2020, when it was modified to Ils étaient dix, thereby avoiding the reproduction of the n-word.[2] A similar approach has been adopted in the case of well-known German children's literature, such as Die Kleine Hexe (2013), which has been reissued with the removal of the n-word and other derogatory terms. [3] In 2024, an analogous initiative was conducted for Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Furthermore, other racist terminology has been removed or substituted in this new German version. These changes once again gave rise to debates surrounding the issue of censorship in literature.[4]

Whilst the public discourse has been predominantly focused on the use and replacement of the n-word, with the potential for an extensive discourse to be constructed on the handling of the n-word in the new version of Jim Knopf and its respective translations in English or French, there are also other racist terminology and stereotypes that are frequently overlooked. While some are often neglected, some of them are perceived as positive and thus misused to oppress other minorities without acknowledging issues arising from these stereotypes.[5] In order to tackle this issue and to provide a more in-depth analysis of the evolution of these changes in relation to their target language, this article briefly touches upon a number of issues faced by new editions. These include the possible loss of elements during the translation process, the missed opportunities, the failure to recognise other forms of discrimination, and the lack of research regarding the translation of positive stereotypes.

1. Brief description of the book

Michael Ende was a very popular and renowned German children’s book author who won several awards and prizes for his books, even at an international level. In 1960, he published Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer, a book since translated into over 40 languages. His other works include Momo and The Neverending Story.[6]

Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer (in English: Jim Button and Luke the Engine driver) depicts the story of Jim Knopf, a baby that happens to be dark-skinned, arriving in a postal parcel on a tiny island called Morrowland (Lummerland in German). The three habitants of the island quickly decide to adopt him and name him Jim. One of the inhabitants, Luke, is a steam engine driver and quickly becomes Jim’s best friend. As Jim grows up, the King becomes concerned about there being insufficient space on the island to build a suitable home for him and decides that Luke’s locomotive must leave. Luke does not want to be separated from his beloved steam engine; he decides to leave too. Unwilling to be separated from his friend, Jim sets off with Luke and the engine on an adventure to distant lands.

Their journey presents them with complex challenges, as well as more positive experiences. They come across the kingdom of China (Mandala[7]), where they learn that Princess Li Si has been kidnapped by pirates and is being held captive in the City of Dragons. Determined to free her, Jim and Luke embark on a quest with many obstacles to overcome, marked by encounters with marginalised characters, such as Mr. Tur Tur, a make-believe-giant[8], who lives secluded in the desert to avoid prejudice due to his appearance, and Nepomuk, a half dragon rejected by pure-blooded dragons because his mother is a hippopotamus. Delighted to be able to talk to other people, both welcome the adventurers with open arms.

At the end of their adventure, Jim and Luke manage to rescue the princess as well as other kidnapped children, all from different countries. They are then all returned to their respective countries by the Emperor of China. The dragon responsible for these abductions is neutralised and begins her year-long transformation into the Golden Dragon of Wisdom. She helps the adventurers and explains to them how to capture a floating island to enlarge Morrowland and thus solve their initial problem.

The central themes of the book focus on Jim's fear of others and the manner in which said fear evolves throughout the text. He learns that whilst other beings may appear intimidating by their exterior, this does not necessarily imply malevolence. He develops a greater sense of courage and hospitality towards other beings, including those with different appearances.

Analogous to ideologies of Nazism, racism and xenophobia, the text conveys among other things the notion of 'real' dragons, which are referred to as Drachen (purebred dragons) in the source text. This term is suggestive of the concepts employed during the Nazi regime in Germany, thereby drawing parallels between the text and historical events.

2. Translation types according to Christiane Nord: documentary and instrumental translation

Christiane Nord distinguishes between two main types of translation: documentary translation and instrumental translation. The first of these is source-oriented, such that the translation would be accompanied by a preface or footnotes, for example, which would add context or explain the use of a certain term or expression.[9] Its primary function is metatextual; ergo, it serves as a target text that provides a description of another text or specific aspects thereof.[10] Nord divides this type into several subcategories, depending on which aspect of the source it aims to preserve. For instance, a translation that aims to recreate the linguistic aspects and the source-language system would be designated as interlinear, while a literal translation would seek to reproduce the original form at word level. Should the translation embrace the source text to the point of highlighting its cultural otherness, it would be termed exoticizing.[11] 

In the case of Jim Knopf, the most fitting subcategory would be the philological one, seeking the content and the form of the source text while adding context through footnotes. The latter could be used to provide a framework for understanding the racist terminology and stereotypes used by placing them in their original context and highlighting how perceptions have changed between the 1960s and the present day.

Opting for a philological documentary translation would induce another change, namely that the text would be reinserted in its context, thus requiring a more mature point of view than that of a child to understand the evolution of language relevant to the book. Consequently, this particular translation would be more appropriate for a mature audience, such as adolescents who might engage with this book in history or language classes, or adults.

To address an audience that would still be composed by the same age range as the source text, the instrumental translation would be the most suitable option. Nord characterises this approach as one that seeks to re-create the perception and effects experienced by the original audience in a manner more aligned with contemporary perceptions. In doing so, it eliminates the ambiguity and problematic elements present in the original text. Accordingly, translators adjust the text to resonate with the zeitgeist of the contemporary audience.[12] Ideally, the target audience is expected not to discern the text as a translation; the system operating herein is that of an invisible translator[13] Nord further divides this type into three subcategories: equifunctional, heterofunctional, and homologous. These forms correspond, respectively, to an unaltered function during the transfer, a functional disparity between the source and target texts, and a slight change that seeks a similar function to that of the source text. [14]

In such cases, the second subcategory applies to a text that is unable to maintain its function without losing its intended meaning in the target language with regard to its target audience. For example, a satirical text adapted for a younger audience would fall into this category. The third subcategory refers for instance to a poetic text that cannot maintain its creative aspect and has to adopt a different one. The equifunctional instrumental translation is applicable in cases where the target audience's age is intended to remain unchanged from that of the original, thus working for Jim Knopf. The target text is then required to reproduce the same effects as the source text. Hence, racist terminology must be substituted by expressions that have a similar effect on a modern audience compared to the effect that expressions used in 1960 had on a German-speaking audience at that time.

Translators retain the freedom to blend the documentary and instrumental types by modifying specific elements while preserving others. [15] Both of these approaches have merits in this case. Indeed, while the German publisher Thienemann opted to continue selling previous editions, incorporating an afterword that contextualises them, the new edition and all the translated texts analysed here adopt the equifunctional instrumental translation type.[16]

3. Analysing

   
   

Excerpt 1: comparison

Source text Michael Ende 1960	English translation Anthea Bell 1990	French translation Jean-Claude Mourlevat 2004	Adapted German edition 2024
Aber im Lauf der Jahre wuchs er heran und wurde ein richtiger Junge, der Streiche machte, Herrn Ärmel ärgerte und sich nicht besonders gerne waschen mochte — eben wie alle kleinen Buben. Das Waschen fand er besonders überflüssig, weil er ja sowieso schwarz war, und man gar nicht sehen konnte, ob sein Hals sauber war oder nicht. Aber Frau Waas ließ das nicht gelten, und Jim sah es schließlich auch ein.[17]	Meanwhile, Jim grew up into a real boy who played tricks, annoyed Mr. Sleeve, and didn’t much like washing, just like other boys. He thought it was especially unneces- sary to take a bath because he would just get dirty again. (However, Mrs. Whatsay thought otherwise, and she usually had her way.)[18]	Quelques années passèrent. Jim grandit. Il se mit à enquiquiner M. Manche, à faire des farces au roi, à se sauver au moment de la toilette : bref, il devint un véritable petit garçon.[19]	Aber im Lauf der Jahre wuchs er heran und wurde ein richtiger Junge, der Streiche machte, Herrn Ärmel ärgerte und sich nicht besonders gerne waschen mochte – eben wie alle kleinen Buben. Das Waschen fand er überflüssig. Doch Frau Waas ließ das nicht gelten und Jim sah es schließlich auch ein.[20]

Only the original edition explicitly equates blackness with dirtiness. The sentence ‘Das Waschen fand er besonders überflüssig, weil er ja sowieso schwarz war, und man gar nicht sehen konnte, ob sein Hals sauber war oder nicht’ (He found washing particularly unnecessary because he was black anyway, and one could not tell whether his neck was clean or not) reinforces the idea that Jim's natural skin colour is considered dirty. However, this observation could also stem from a child's innocent perception of the situation, rather than being an intentional portrayal by the author.

It is surprising to see these two concepts brought together, given that the author's intentions are far from racist. Instead, his aim is to present a protagonist with whom the reader can identify: a charming, self-aware character. After all, Luke himself is also characterised as black, being smeared with oil and soot from working on the steam engine (‘his hands and face were quite black with oil and soot’[21]). However, this implies that black is synonymous with dirt. It is therefore hardly surprising that the German translation omitted this sentence, retaining merely the idea that all young boys dislike washing. This recurring theme serves to remind the reader that Jim is an ordinary boy, just like the others.

Anthea Bell omits the sentence equating blackness with dirtiness and adds the following: 'He thought it was especially unnecessary to take a bath because he would just get dirty again.' Rather than implying that Jim would always be dirty because of the colour of his skin, the English translation provides an alternative explanation. Bell states that Jim will inevitably get dirty again after washing, thereby rendering any attempt at washing futile. Here, the translator omits the racist passage and provides a reason absent from the original text that offers a coherent justification.

Given that the French translation is not based on the original German edition but on the 1995 edition[22], it is worth noting that the German sentence equating black with dirt is undoubtedly included in all editions prior to the recent one. This sentence appears in both the 1995[23] and 2004[24] editions, at least. Jean-Claude Mourlevat's translation aligns with the 2024 German version but omits Jim's view that washing is pointless, emphasising instead that it is common for a young boy to ‘se sauver au moment de la toilette’ (run away when it's time to wash). The translator considers the original to be very clumsy[25] and confirms that he interpreted the German sentence as equating the two terms.[26]

3.1 Possible loss of elements during the translation process

Excerpt 2: comparison

Source text Michael Ende 1960	English translation Anthea Bell 1990	French translation Jean-Claude Mourlevat 2004	Adapted German edition 2024
Jims bester Freund war und blieb Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Sie verstanden sich ohne viele Worte, schon allein deshalb, weil Lukas ja ebenfalls fast ganz schwarz war. Oft fuhr Jim auf der Emma mit, und Lukas zeigte und erklärte ihm alles. Manchmal durfte Jim unter Lukas' Aufsicht sogar schon ein Stück weit selbst fahren. Jims größter Wunsch war nämlich, später auch Lokomotivführer zu werden, weil dieser Beruf so gut zu seiner Haut paßte. Aber dazu brauchte er erst einmal eine eigene Lokomotive. Und Lokomotiven sind bekanntlich ziemlich schwer zu bekommen, besonders in Lummerland.[27]	Jim’s best friend was Luke the engine driver. They understood each other even without talking, because, for ont [sic] thing, they were both quite black. Often Jim would go with Luke and Emma, and Luke would show him every- thing. Sometimes, with Luke by his side, he was allowed to drive the engine for a little way. Jim’s greatest wish was to be an engine driver himself one day, because being an engine driver would go so well with the blackness of his skin. However, he would have to get an engine of his own first. And engines were hard to come by, especially in Morrowland.[28]	Son meilleur ami était Lucas. Ils se comprenaient à demi-mot, tous les deux. Souvent, Jim accompagnait Lucas sur la locomotive, et parfois il avait même le droit de piloter. Son rêve était de devenir chauffeur à son tour.[29]	Jims bester Freund war und blieb Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Sie verstanden sich ohne viele Worte. Oft fuhr Jim auf der Emma mit und Lukas zeigte und erklärte ihm alles. Manchmal durfte Jim unter Lukas’ Aufsicht sogar schon ein Stück weit selbst fahren. Jims größter Wunsch war es nämlich, später auch Lokomotivführer zu werden. Aber dazu brauchte er erst einmal eine eigene Lokomotive. Und Lokomotiven sind bekanntlich ziemlich schwer zu bekommen, besonders in Lummerland.[30]

In the original 1960 German edition, Jim and Luke's strong bond is explained by their physical resemblance ‘fast ganz schwarz’ (almost entirely black), which establishes an implicit racial connection. Ende thus suggests that this shared trait provides grounds for their close friendship. Nevertheless, it is important to note that physical resemblance alone is insufficient for establishing a genuine friendship. The phrase can be explained by the fact that the passage is narrated by an omniscient narrator exhibiting an internal focalisation on Jim and a somewhat naïve perspective. Although Jim’s emotions are not explicitly revealed, phrases such as 'weil Lukas ja ebenfalls fast ganz schwarz war’ (because Luke was also almost entirely black) and 'weil dieser Beruf so gut zu seiner Haut paßte’ (because this profession suited his skin so well) seemingly express his inner thoughts.

From an adult's perspective, it seems obvious that the similarity in skin colour cannot justify either their close friendship or Jim's desire to become an engine driver solely because of his skin colour. Conversely, for a young person with less life experience, these associations may be perceived as innocent and naïve. Moreover, the character of Jim is notable for being the sole Black individual on an island where the population is exclusively white. In the context of societal integration, it is a common tendency among children to seek out individuals who bear physical resemblances to them.[31]

In contrast to the previous passage, which underwent substantial adaptation to avoid the association between the black colour and dirt, Bell's work retains the same ideas as the original text, suggesting that they were not perceived as out of place or problematic. The link between the two characters is sustained in this extract on account of the translation's rigorous alignment with the original text.

Notably, the French translation, distinguished by its succinctness, effectively addresses these ambiguities. Indeed, in the 1995 edition, this extract is identical to that of 1960.[32] Consequently, the alterations were implemented by Mourlevat. The hypothesis that their compatibility is attributable to their shared skin colour no longer features in ‘Ils se comprenaient à demi-mot, tous les deux' (They understood each other without needing to say a word, the two of them). Furthermore, the translator writes: 'Son rêve était de devenir chauffeur à son tour’ (His dream was to become a driver himself), without mentioning any possible link between Jim's physical appearance and the profession of steam engine driver. While these choices may have been made to accelerate the narrative, Mourlevat has, more generally, avoided reiterating and highlighting Jim's skin colour, as he deems it to be ' inutile de revenir toujours (…) sur la couleur de sa peau’[33] (pointless to keep coming back (...) to the colour of his skin). Consequently, he has neutralised the sentence, thereby demonstrating an elevated level of awareness regarding the potential for perpetuating stereotypes. This omission adapts the text to the expectations of a contemporary audience for whom equating physical appearance with a social role would be more problematic.

The recent German edition generally retains the descriptions found in the original and in the English translation, but the adaptation of the two sentences in bold is very similar to the French edition. Indeed, the 2004 and 2024 editions demonstrate a striking similarity in this regard, as both omit the parallels drawn between Jim's skin colour and Luke's, as well as those between the occupation of steam engine driver and Jim's skin. However, these omissions result in a loss. While the content is not essential to the narrative, it does detract from the portrayal of the friendship between Luke and Jim. The removed passage plays a significant role in the development of the relationship between the two characters, and it demonstrates Jim's ambition to follow in Luke's footsteps. Even though Jim anticipates a future shaped by limited introspection, placing considerable reliance on his skin colour in determining his professional path, these elements are not compensated for in subsequent sections of the text.

Irrespective of whether the new German edition is perceived as an instrumental or a documentary translation, the close bond between Jim and Luke is given less attention due to the numerous adaptations and truncations of phrases that link their friendship once again with Jim's skin colour. A potential solution to this issue would have been to include a footnote providing an explanation regarding the removal in the case of a documentary translation. To follow an instrumental perspective, another common characteristic shared by Jim and Luke that could justify their close bond could have been invented. Potential factors could include physical characteristics such as a deformed finger or a distinctive birthmark. A less superficial approach would entail the suggestion that Jim and Luke share a specific interest or a profound mutual understanding and frequently experience a congruence of thought.

3.2 Missed opportunities

Excerpt 3: comparison

Source text Michael Ende 1960	English translation Anthea Bell 1990	French translation Jean-Claude Mourlevat 2004	Adapted German edition 2024
Der Drache wandte sich erstaunt um und sah einen kleinen schwarzen Jungen in der Tür stehen, der ihn furchtlos anblickte. „Sie dürfen Li Si nichts tun", sagte Jim fest. „He, du frrrrrecher schwarrrrzer Drrrreckspatz!" grunzte der Drache verblüfft. „Wo kommst du denn her, und werrrr bist du überrrrrhaupt?"[34]	The dragon spun round, and saw to her great surprise a little black boy in the doorway; he looked at her without any trace of fear. “You mustn’t touch Li Si,’ said Jim firmly. “Eh? Why, you saucccy rascal!” cried the dragon, quite taken aback.[35]	La dragonne fit volte-face, stupéfaite, et découvrit un petit garçon noir qui la regardait sans crainte depuis la porte. — Dis donc, insssssolente petite crrrotte noirrre, hurla-t-elle, qui es-tu et d’où sssorrrs-tu ?[36]	Der Drache wandte sich erstaunt um und sah einen kleinen Jungen in der Tür stehen, der ihn furchtlos anblickte. »Sie dürfen Li Si nichts tun«, sagte Jim fest. »He, du frrrrrecher Rrrrrotzlöffel!«, grunzte der Drache verblüfft. »Wo kommst du denn her und werrrr bist du überrrrhaupt?«[37]

In this passage, the protagonists, Jim and Luke, enter the room where the dragon is holding the kidnapped children captive. The dragon detects the presence of Jim and subjects him to a racially motivated insult, drawing upon the colour of his skin. In the context of the story, this constitutes an explicitly racist insult. This example is of interest for several reasons. Firstly, the text features discriminatory language uttered by a deliberately malicious character. Secondly, it is important to consider the broader narrative context in which the ‘real’ dragons are portrayed as establishing and maintaining a racial hierarchy, particularly regarding half dragons.

In the French translation, this aspect is embraced and upheld. The translator defends this choice by stating that the dragons are described as racist creatures, which renders the use of a skin-colour-based insult appropriate. Mourlevat is of the opinion that this is a racist insult, the severity of which must be maintained, as it is expressed by a racist individual.[38] This position is consistent with a documentary approach to translation, which aims to reproduce racist speech without endorsing it, by highlighting it in order to effectively condemn it. This decision aligns with the internal consistency of the fictional universe, where so-called 'purebred' dragons symbolically represent figures of racial supremacy, analogous to Nazi or xenophobic ideologies. Indeed, these creatures are known to form judgments about other characters based on their distinct physical appearance, thereby establishing a system of classification based on physical criteria.

In contrast, the 2024 German edition employs a strategy of complete neutralisation, whereby the term schwarz (black) is entirely removed from the insult. This choice can be interpreted as a deliberate attempt to eliminate any potential racial ambiguity from the text, even in instances where such ambiguity is attributed to an antagonistic and racist speaker. This omission, however, gives rise to a fundamental question: is the removal of racist violence truly an effective way of tackling this practice? When viewed through a different lens, the decision not to reproduce the adjective appealing to the skin colour could be understood as a statement that skin colour is irrelevant. This suggests that dragons would not differentiate between individuals based on their skin colour but exhibit racist behaviour towards half dragons and humans in general. This scene can thus be read from two different perspectives. On one hand, it could be construed as a missed opportunity to highlight the purported racism of the ‘real’ dragon. On the other hand, it could be interpreted as an indication that the dragons' racism is not so much a result of racial bias but rather directed at humans in general.

A further option would have been to incorporate an explanatory paratext, or to reinforce elsewhere in the narrative the elements that clearly establish that the dragons are racist. This approach would have facilitated the recognition of this wording as problematic by the target audience.

It is noteworthy that the English translation, which typically retains instances of the word 'black', also opts to omit this reference from the insult. This editorial approach suggests a cultural resistance to the use of skin colour as a vehicle for insult, even in a fictional context where the expression is uttered by an antagonist. This heightened sensitivity is indicative of an increased awareness of the potentially traumatic effects of specific linguistic expressions.

3.3 Failure to recognise other forms of discrimination

It should be noted that anti-Asian racism is frequently directed towards individuals from Eastern or Southeast Asian countries.[39] Nonetheless, a significant proportion of source texts exhibit an absence of or an insufficient differentiation between nationalities.[40] Thereafter, it becomes challenging to ascertain which caricatures and phrases were employed against which individuals, given this amalgamation of diverse individuals. Accordingly, the terms 'Chinese' and 'Asian' will be employed in a variety of instances throughout the paper, depending on the reference text. This is not to imply that the population is homogeneous, but rather to ensure that the sources utilised are not misinterpreted, as they are typically based on stereotypical physical characteristics.

Excerpt 4: comparison

Source text Michael Ende 1960	English translation Anthea Bell 1990	French translation Jean-Claude Mourlevat 2004	Adapted German edition 2024
In Ping gab es ungeheuer viele Menschen, die alle Chinesen waren. Jim, der noch niemals so viele Leute auf einmal gesehen hatte, wurde es ganz unheimlich zumut. Alle hatten Schlitzaugen und Zöpfe und trugen große runde Hüte auf den Köpfen. (…) Das waren die Chinesen mit ihren Kindern und Kindeskindern. (Alle Chinesen haben sehr viele Kinder und Kindeskinder.)[41]	There were crowds and crowds of people in Ping, and they were all Chinese. Jim had never seen so many people, and he felt rather awkward. All of them had slanting eyes and pigtails, and wore large round hats. (…) These were the Chinese with their children and grandchildren and great-grandchildren. (All Chinese, by the way, have lots of grandchildren and great-grandchildren. )[42]	À Ping, il y avait une incroyable foule de gens. C’étaient les Mandaliens. Tous avaient des yeux en amande, de longues tresses et portaient des chapeaux ronds sur la tête. (…) C’étaient les Mandaliens avec leurs enfants et les enfants de leurs enfants.[43]	In Ping gab es ungeheuer viele Menschen, die alle Mandalanier waren. Jim, der noch niemals so viele Leute auf einmal gesehen hatte, wurde es ganz unheimlich zumut. Alle trugen Zöpfe und große runde Hüte auf den Köpfen. (…) Das waren die Mandalanier mit ihren Kindern und Kindeskindern. (Alle Mandalanier haben sehr viele Kinder und Kindeskinder.)[44]

In this excerpt, Ende employs characterisations of the Chinese that are frequently found in Western caricatures. Depictions often feature Schlitzaugen (slanting eyes), Zöpfe (pigtails) and große runde Hüte (large round hats).[45] Bell's translation accurately reflects the corresponding English terminology. Such designations have a long history of being used to highlight racial differences and thereby justify discrimination.

Initially they were used descriptively to denote racial and cultural differences. The Chinese people were “yellow,” “slant eyed,” and “pigtailed.” As they came into direct job competition with Caucasians, the stereotypes evolved from descriptions to negative characterizations.[46]

Historically, terms such as 'slanting eyes' have served to degrade Chinese and Asian people. Rooted in racial theory, the term perpetuates social injustices. As previously mentioned, the combination of 'large round hats' and 'pigtails' occurs in Western caricatures of Asian people, yet they are regarded as less offensive. In essence, these depictions are designed to categorise individuals as 'other', thereby diminishing their significance to a mere physical attribute. As demonstrated in the following quotation, these negative stereotypes have never truly disappeared but have been sustained throughout the years.

These stereotypes were assumed to be an inherent part of the Chinese character, and they served to justify continuing discrimination and legislation against Chinese. By attributing these “immutable” traits to the Chinese nature and inferring that those with such characteristics must be subhuman, many Americans could maintain the philosophy that “all men are created equal” and continue to treat the Chinese as less than equal.[47]

The German translation has omitted the description of the eyes and retained only the other two expressions, which are less racist. It is also noteworthy that this edition makes reference to a nation called Mandala, rather than establishing a direct correlation between these terms and China. Readers may thus, in theory, associate these descriptions with an imaginary nationality, without drawing any stigmatising parallels. This modification serves to mitigate the discriminatory implications of the original text, while concurrently preserving a form of visual exoticisation through the depictions of attire and hairstyle. Despite the effort to disassociate the text from racist stereotypes through the removal of the term Schlitzaugen, the persistence of other elements enables the continuation of caricatured imagery to a certain extent. By substituting China with a fictional country, the new edition shifts towards a more neutralised representation, which could nevertheless be recognised as targeting Chinese people if the other stereotypes are retained. This shift is also reflected in the French translation.

Mourlevat tones down this effect by using the expression yeux en amande, which is considered far less racist than yeux bridés, but which is nonetheless inappropriate.[48]  That being said, this choice is consistent with the evolving use of these two terms.

The extract in question also features the stereotypical concept that Chinese people typically have large families, with numerous children and grandchildren. This passage has been shortened in the comparison table, as the editions analysed do not differ in terms of terminology. The English edition, which constitutes a literal translation of the original, is quoted below by way of example.

Every Chinese held by the hand another Chinese who was a little smaller; and he again another Chinese who was a little smaller still; and so on, down to the smallest who was no bigger than a pea. Whether he, in his turn, was holding a still smaller Chinese by the hand, Jim could not tell—he would have needed a magnifying glass to find that out![49]

Indeed, during the 1950s, China accounted for the largest share of the world's population, with 602 million inhabitants in 1953[50] out of a total of approximately 2.6 billion people.[51]  Between the 1950s and the 1980s, China introduced a series of increasingly draconian measures with the aim of reducing the birth rate.[52] The prevailing perceptions of China during the late 19th and early 20th centuries were primarily shaped by economic disparities[53], giving rise to the conceptualisation of the 'Yellow Peril', a term denoting an imagined threat posed by a supposedly uncivilised, brutal and threatening mass of people. [54] Ultimately, this population would overwhelm white people in order to rule the world.[55] Within this paradigm, the Chinese people were regarded as having the capacity to destroy the lives of white individuals, much like enemies who must be confronted.

Ende's work does not purportedly convey a racist message. Nevertheless, whether intentionally or not, the author employs an element that was leveraged at the time of the work's publication to promote narratives depicting East Asian populations as hazardous and a potential threat capable of readily overpowering the West due to their sheer numbers. This fear fuelled existing xenophobia and served to justify the enslavement and subjugation of Asian people.[56]

The French translation stands out in this context, as it is the only one that omits the phrase 'Alle Chinesen haben sehr viele Kinder und Kindeskinder' (All Chinese people have lots of children and grandchildren) to avoid the repetition of a potentially racist phrase.[57]  Yet none of the publications have eliminated the stereotype. In the case of the two most recent editions, this choice is justifiable, insofar as it is neither explicitly racist terminology nor a judgement that immediately refers to China.

A curious choice is to retain the sentence 'Jim, der noch niemals so viele Leute auf einmal gesehen hatte, wurde es ganz unheimlich zumut' (Jim, who had never seen so many people at once before, began to feel eerie). Whilst Bell opted to translate unheimlich with the term 'awkward', it is important to note that the German word is more accurately translated as 'eerie, sinister'[58], as stated in the Cambridge Dictionary. The translation, therefore, omits the 'fear' element from the original sentence, instead conveying a sense of social unease or of being overwhelmed by the present circumstances. The recent German edition has maintained the original sentence, thereby reinforcing the notion that the sheer number of Chinese people is perceived as intimidating. This in turn draws parallels to the stereotype often ascribed to Asian people in general, casting them as a homogeneous entity of a menacing nature.

3.4 Lack of research regarding the translation of positive stereotypes

Excerpt 5: comparison

Source text Michael Ende  1960	English translation Anthea Bell 1990	French translation Jean-Claude Mourlevat 2004	Adapted German edition  2024
Die Chinesen sind ein sehr, sehr kluges Volk. Sie sind sogar eines der klügsten Völker der Erde. (…) Daher kommt es, daß bereits die winzigsten Kinder ihre Wäsche selbst waschen können. Mit einem Jahr sind sie schon so gescheit, daß sie herumlaufen und ganz erwachsen reden können. Mit zwei Jahren können sie lesen und schreiben. Mit drei Jahren rechnen sie die schwersten Rechenaufgaben aus, die bei uns höchstens ein Professor bewältigen kann. Das fällt aber in China nicht weiter auf, weil eben alle Kinder so gescheit sind.[59]	Yet if you remember that the Chinese are (…) a very, very clever people, then it’s not really surprising at all. In fact, the Chinese are so ‘clever that children of one year of age can walk and talk like an adult. At two they read and write. At three they can do arithmetic which in other countries only learned professors can do.[60]	Pour mieux comprendre, il faut savoir qu’à Mandala les enfants d’un an parlent déjà comme des adultes. À deux ans, ils savent tous lire et écrire. À trois ans, ils résolvent des opérations mathématiques si compliquées qu’un professeur de chez nous en viendrait à peine à bout.[61]	Die Mandalanier sind ein sehr, sehr kluges Volk. Sie sind sogar eines der klügsten Völker der Erde. (…) Daher kommt es, dass bereits die winzigsten Kinder ihre Wäsche selbst waschen können. Mit einem Jahr sind sie schon so gescheit, dass sie herumlaufen und ganz erwachsen reden können. Mit zwei Jahren können sie lesen und schreiben. Mit drei Jahren rechnen sie die schwersten Rechenaufgaben aus, die bei uns höchstens ein Professor bewältigen kann. Das fällt aber in Mandala nicht weiter auf, weil eben alle Kinder so gescheit sind.[62]

In this excerpt, the sections are very similar. Despite the condensation of the English translation, the fundamental message has been preserved in its essence, with no significant content being compromised. As with the other excerpts, Mourlevat has shortened the passage considerably. Nevertheless, he continues to uphold the stereotype. The two more recent publications refer to Mandala rather than China, providing a positive description that is not considered racist in the given context.

Negative stereotypes about Chinese people are evidently discriminatory. They are the result of a historical process shaped by racial theory and colonialism. Therefore, they frequently induce a Pygmalion effect. [63] Furthermore, their use can be detrimental to one's self-esteem.[64] Conversely, the real-world repercussions of positive stereotypes must not be disregarded either.

Many positive stereotypes are attributed to Chinese people. They are regarded as intelligent, composed and reserved.[65] Additionally, they are reputed to demonstrate heightened levels of diligence and efficiency in their work,[66] along with a certain degree of proficiency in mathematics. [67]   It is often asserted that they constitute part of a 'model minority', esteemed to be more successful professionally than other minority groups.[68]  This perspective is frequently accompanied by the impression that Chinese individuals possess a natural aptitude for achieving their objectives, thereby negating the necessity for effort.[69] Thus, when confronted with challenges, they are often subjected to diminished seriousness and heightened performance expectations.[70]

Analogous to negative stereotypes, positive stereotypes actively contribute to fostering a perception of China as a threat to the West.[71] Characteristics attributed to the Chinese population are linked to a persistent fear that Chinese people will surpass white people and take the lead in world affairs.[72] Furthermore, the portrayal of China as a model minority harms other marginalised communities. These communities are constantly being compared with one another, and perceptions of China are used to belittle Black people in particular.[73]

Stereotypes of groups can be abused. The apparent success of Asian Americans, as reflected by stereotypes, is often held as a model for other minorities. It is argued that blacks should copy the Asians and that America is not really racist since some nonwhite minorities are able to achieve the “American dream.” This ignores the tremendous variations among ethnic groups and is a gross oversimplification of complex phenomena.[74]

Nevertheless, while the propagation of such stereotypes can indeed have real-world consequences, it is important to acknowledge that Ende does not draw comparisons between different communities, nor does he utilise the narrative to denigrate other characters in the book. Instead, he expresses admiration for the Chinese people, attributing their intelligence to a level that surpasses that of the white population. By doing so, he positions the Chinese people as a highly interesting group. Had he adopted a racist viewpoint, he would instead have highlighted the dangerous aspects of the Chinese people or perhaps pointed out that their intelligence does not surpass that of the inhabitants of Morrowland.

Despite the author's admiration for China at the time of writing, the use of positive stereotypes undermines experiences of racial discrimination.[75] This form of stereotype is frequently perceived as being appropriate, as those who articulate it do not perceive any harm in it.[76] However, these stereotypes are frequently accompanied by negative perceptions.[77]  In addition, the discourse on racism is predominantly focused on Black individuals, with other minority groups often being overlooked. While the comments are indeed complimentary, Chinese people are all aggregated into a single group and reduced to a specific image that the public expects of them, without taking into account whether all individuals in question actually live up to these expectations.[78]

Conclusion

The process of translating racism in children's literature, whether into a documentary or an instrumental translation, necessitates a substantial amount of background research. While it is important to consider racism towards Black people in the historic context when adapting children's literature, racism against other populations should not be neglected. During the 20th century, there have been several documented instances of violence against Asian people.[79] The Corona pandemic has also given rise to a further wave of animosity towards individuals perceived to be of Chinese descent, not only in the United States of America[80], but also in France[81] and in Germany[82].

When translators endeavour to adhere to political correctness, they may inadvertently omit a crucial detail from the source text. In the case of Jim Knopf, the friendship between the two protagonists has been stripped of its original significance to a considerable extent, primarily due to its decreased frequency in the narrative and lack of detail. In the analysed excerpts, the degree to which the written text perpetuates racism, or is simply intended to be comedic or to present the world from the perspective of a naïve child with very little life experience, Jim, is debateable.

Generally speaking, enabling children to read the same books as their parents or grandparents and to enjoy the story in a similar manner is to be encouraged. Intense debates concerning ‘censorship’ will likely continue in the media discourse, although, as demonstrated by the case of Jim Knopf, editions featuring the original language remain more often than not available for purchase.

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[1] Cf. Wecksteen-Quinio, Corinne. « Comment rendre les sens du “ N-word ” ? L’exemple de la traduction française de A Time To Kill de John Grisham: », p. 61.

[2] Ibid.

[3]Cf. BAX, Daniel. « Diskriminierende Sprache bei Preußler: Die Kleine Hexe, ohne Rassismus ».

[4] Cf. REUCHER, Gaby. « Rassistisch oder nicht? “Jim Knopf” wird 60 ».

[5] Cf. SUE, Stanley, et KITANO, Harry H. L. « Stereotypes as a Measure of Success », p. 95. 

[6] Cf. Michael Ende | Offizielle Webseite. « Michael Ende ». 

[7] Since 1981, Michael Ende has personally revised all references to the country 'China' in the German editions, replacing them with the fictional, exotic kingdom of Mandala. This change was also made in the French translation in 2004, but Anthea Bell kept 'China' in the English translation.

[8] Mr. Tur Tur is not a real giant. He defies the laws of perspective: when he is far away, he appears to be a giant, but when he is standing right up close, he looks like an ordinary adult.

[9] Cf. NORD, Christiane. « Skopos and (Un)certainty: How Functional Translators Deal with Doubt », p.33.

[10] Cf. NORD, Christiane. Translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained, p. 46.

[11] Cf. NORD, Christiane. Translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained, pp. 46-48.

[12] Cf. NORD, Christiane. « Skopos and (Un)certainty: How Functional Translators Deal with Doubt », p.33.

[13] Cf. Venuti, Lawrence. « The Translator’s Invisibility », p. 179.

[14] Cf. Nord, Christiane. Translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained, pp. 48-49.

[15] Cf. Nord, Christiane. « Skopos and (Un)certainty: How Functional Translators Deal with Doubt », pp. 34-35.

[16] Cf. « Presseinformation Thienemann Verlage ».

[17] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1963): p. 18.

[18] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p.19.

[19] Ende, Michael. Jim Bouton et Lucas le chauffeur de locomotive: la cité des dragons. (2004): chapitre 2, 4/5.

[20] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer: Kinderbuchklassiker in kolorierter Neuausgabe. (2024): chapitre 2, 7/8.

[21] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p. 10.

[22] Cf. Jean-Claude Mourlevat, e-mail correspondence with the translator on 8 April 2025.

[23] Cf. Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1995): p.16.

[24] Cf. Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (2004): p.16.

[25] Jean-Claude Mourlevat, a meeting with the translator, via Zoom on 17 April 2025.

[26] Cf. Ibid.

[27] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1963): p. 18.

[28] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p. 19.

[29] Ende, Michael. Jim Bouton et Lucas le chauffeur de locomotive: la cité des dragons. (2004): chapter 2, 4/5.

[30] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer: Kinderbuchklassiker in kolorierter Neuausgabe. (2024): chapter 2, 7/8.

[31] Cf. Richter, Nadja, et al. « Social Preference in Preschoolers: Effects of Morphological Self-Similarity and Familiarity », pp. 1 and 9.

[32] Cf. Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1995).

[33] Jean-Claude Mourlevat, a meeting with the translator, via Zoom on 17 April 2025.

[34] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1963): p. 168.

[35] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p. 165.

[36] Ende, Michael. Jim Bouton et Lucas le chauffeur de locomotive: la cité des dragons. (2004): chapter 21, 6/7.

[37] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer: Kinderbuchklassiker in kolorierter Neuausgabe. (2024): chapter 21, 8/15.

[38] Cf. Jean-Claude Mourlevat, a meeting with the translator, via Zoom on 17 April 2025.

[39] Cf. Les valeurs de la République. « Le racisme anti-asiatiques | Valeurs de la République ».

[40] Cf. Von Aufschnaiter, Monika. « Anti-asiatischer Rassismus ».

[41] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1963): pp. 39-40.

[42] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p. 40.

[43] Ende, Michael. Jim Bouton et Lucas le chauffeur de locomotive: la cité des dragons. (2004): chapter 6, 1/3.

[44] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer: Kinderbuchklassiker in kolorierter Neuausgabe. (2024): chapter 6, 1/6.

[45] Cf. « Karikatur | Mind the gap(s) ».

[46] Sue, Stanley, et Kitano, Harry H. L. « Stereotypes as a Measure of Success », p. 84.

[47] Ibid., p. 85.

[48] Machado, Pauline. « Le “fox eye”, la tendance maquillage accusée de racisme  ». 

[49] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p. 40.

[50] Cf. Zhai, Zhenwu, et Jin, Guangzhao. « China’s Family Planning Policy and Fertility Transition », pp. 480-481.

[51] Cf. Worldometer. « World Population by Year ».

[52] Cf. Zhai, Zhenwu, et Jin, Guangzhao. « China’s Family Planning Policy and Fertility Transition », pp. 480-481.

[53] Cf. Mägdefrau, Jutta, et al. « The Image of the Chinese Nation in German Textbooks: Quantitative Content Analyses of History, Geography, and Civics Textbooks », p. 22.

[54] Chuang, Ya-Han. « Racisme “anti-asiatique”, ou le dénigrement d’une minorité », p. 111.

[55] France Culture. « Pourquoi ne parle-t-on plus du “péril jaune” ? ».

[56] Cf. Peters, Michael A. « From the ‘Yellow Peril’ to the ‘Asian Century’ », p. 985.

[57] Cf. Jean-Claude Mourlevat, a meeting with the translator, via Zoom, on 17 April 2025.

[58] Cambridge Dictionary. « unheimlich ».

[59] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. (1963): p. 53.

[60] Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. (1990): p. 51.

[61] Ende, Michael. Jim Bouton et Lucas le chauffeur de locomotive: la cité des dragons. (2004): chapter 7, 5/5.

[62] Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer: Kinderbuchklassiker in kolorierter Neuausgabe. (2024): chapter 7, 7/7.

[63] Cf. Sue, Stanley, et Kitano, Harry H. L. « Stereotypes as a Measure of Success », p. 95.

[64] Cf. Ibid., p. 94.

[65] Cf. Ibid., p. 95.

[66] Cf. Zhang, Lingling. « Stereotypes of Chinese by American College Students: Media Use and Perceived Realism », p. 11.

[67] Cf. Gu, Yusheng. « Evolution of Western Stereotypes and Media Portrayals of Chinese People: From Orientalism to Inclusion », p.2.

[68] Chuang, Ya-Han. « Racisme “anti-asiatique”, ou le dénigrement d’une minorité », p. 109.

[69] Cf. Gu, Yusheng. « Evolution of Western Stereotypes and Media Portrayals of Chinese People: From Orientalism to Inclusion », p.2.

[70] Cf. Ibid., p. 4.

[71] Cf. Zhang, Lingling. « Stereotypes of Chinese by American College Students: Media Use and Perceived Realism », p. 12.

[72] Cf. Ibid., p.12.

[73] Cf. Sue, Stanley, et Kitano, Harry H. L. « Stereotypes as a Measure of Success », p. 95.

[74] Ibid., pp. 95-96.

[75] Chuang, Ya-Han. « Racisme “anti-asiatique”, ou le dénigrement d’une minorité », p. 109.

[76] Cf. Siy, John Oliver, et Cheryan, Sapna. « Prejudice Masquerading as Praise: The Negative Echo of Positive Stereotypes », p. 941.

[77] Cf. Ibid., p. 952.

[78] Cf. Ibid., p. 942.

[79] Cf. Ehrich, Cuso et akiko rive. « Broschüre Anti-Asiatischer Rassismus: Eine Einführung für die politische Bildungsarbeit », p.19.

[80] Chuang, Ya-Han. « Racisme “anti-asiatique”, ou le dénigrement d’une minorité », p. 15.

[81] Cf. Roche, Mathilde. « #JeNeSuisPasUnVirus : ils dénoncent les amalgames et le racisme liés au coronavirus ».

[82] Cf. Gopalakrishnan, Manasi, et Imran, Warda. « Anti-asiatischer Rassismus in Deutschland ».

Bibliography

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Chuang, Ya-Han. « Racisme “anti-asiatique”, ou le dénigrement d’une minorité ». Pouvoirs N° 181, n^o 2 (2022): 109‑117. https://doi.org/10.3917/pouv.181.0109.

Gu, Yusheng. « Evolution of Western Stereotypes and Media Portrayals of Chinese People: From Orientalism to Inclusion ». Interdisciplinary Humanities and Communication Studies 1, n^o 10 (2024): 1‑5. https://doi.org/10.61173/da39tz88.

Mägdefrau, Jutta, et al. « The Image of the Chinese Nation in German Textbooks: Quantitative Content Analyses of History, Geography, and Civics Textbooks ». Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society 16, n^o 2 (2024): 19‑50. https://doi.org/10.3167/jemms.2024.160202.

Nord, Christiane. « Skopos and (Un)certainty: How Functional Translators Deal with Doubt ». Meta 61, n^o 1 (2016): 29‑41. https://doi.org/10.7202/1036981ar.

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Books

Ende, Michael. Jim Bouton et Lucas le chauffeur de locomotive: la cité des dragons. Traduit par Mourlevat, Jean-Claude. Illustré par Dorémus, Gaëtan. Bayard jeunesse, 2004.

Ende, Michael. Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver. Traduit par Bell, Anthea. Illustré par Dodd, Maurice S. Overlook Press, 1990.

Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Illustré par Michl, Reinhard. Thienemann, 1983.

Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Illustré par Tripp, F. J. 7^e éd. Thienemann, 1963.

Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer: Kinderbuchklassiker in kolorierter Neuausgabe. Illustré par Weber, Mathias et Tripp, F. J. Thienemann Verlag, 2024.

Nord, Christiane. Translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. Second edition. Translation theories explored. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.

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Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Avec Internet Archive. München Omnibus, 1995. Accessed on 03 August 2025. http://archive.org/details/jimknopfundlukas0000ende.

Ende, Michael. Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer. Avec Internet Archive. Stuttgart : K. Thienemann, 2004. Accessed on 16 July 2025. http://archive.org/details/jimknopfundlukas0000ende_q0m5.

France Culture. « Pourquoi ne parle-t-on plus du “péril jaune” ? » 22 March 2022. Accessed on 31 July 2025. https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/podcasts/le-pourquoi-du-comment-histoire/pourquoi-ne-parle-t-on-plus-du-peril-jaune-4907098.

Gopalakrishnan, Manasi, et Imran, Warda. « Anti-asiatischer Rassismus in Deutschland ». DW, 21 March 2021. Accessed on 31 July 2025. https://www.dw.com/de/anti-asiatischer-rassismus-in-deutschland/a-56935058.

« Karikatur | Mind the gap(s) ». Mind the gap(s), 28 August 2020. Accessed on 31 July 2025. https://mindthegaps.hypotheses.org/tag/karikatur?lang=en_GB.

Les valeurs de la République. « Le racisme anti-asiatiques | Valeurs de la République ». Accessed on 07 August 2025. https://valeurs-de-la-republique.reseau-canope.fr/decouvrir/notice/racisme-anti-asiatiques/un-racisme-peu-evoque-mais-bien-reel.

Machado, Pauline. Le “fox eye”, la tendance maquillage accusée de racisme. Terrafemina, 25 August 2020. Accessed on 29 September 2026. https://www.terrafemina.com/article/-fox-eye-la-tendance-maquillage-accusee-de-racisme_a354837/1

Michael Ende | Offizielle Webseite. « Michael Ende ». 12 August 2010. Accessed on 16 July 2025. https://michaelende.de/autor/biographie/michael-ende.

« Presseinformation Thienemann Verlage ». Thienemann, 22 February 2024. https://www.thienemann.de/fileadmin/Thienemann-Esslinger.de/Verlag/Presse_und_Blogger/Pressemeldungen/Pressemitteilung_Aenderung-Jim-Knopf_2024-2-22.pdf?srsltid=AfmBOorrXtahfNfc1hmyHeggsPLW2x0yndDQaxpwYwTS2pSz.

Reucher, Gaby. « Rassistisch oder nicht? “Jim Knopf” wird 60 ». DW. Accessed on 08 August 2025. https://www.dw.com/de/jim-knopf-rassismus-michael-ende/a-54479882.

Roche, Mathilde. « #JeNeSuisPasUnVirus : ils dénoncent les amalgames et le racisme liés au coronavirus ». TF1 INFO, 27 January 2020. Accessed on 31 July 2025. https://www.tf1info.fr/societe/jenesuispasunvirus-denonce-les-amalgames-et-le-racisme-anti-asiatiques-du-au-coronavirus-2143901.html.

Von Aufschnaiter, Monika. « Anti-asiatischer Rassismus ». Bayerischer Rundfunk, 26 May 2021. Accessed on 07 August 2025. https://www.br.de/extra/respekt/rassismus-antiasiatischer-vorurteile100.html.

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